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第一章揭秘万能论证图谱公式第一节论证图谱助力新托福一、论证和新托福新托福考试共由四部分组成：阅读、听力、口语和写作。由于阅读和听力的题目都是选择题，因此被称为“选择性题目”(selective tasks)。相比之下，口语和写作的题目被称为“构思性题目”（constructive tasks)。在这里，“构思”指的是阐述和表达。那么考生在考试时需要阐述和表达什么内容呢？答案是需要针对六道口语题和两道写作题进行阐述和表达。为什么ETS要考査考生在学术英语方面的口头和书面表达能力呢？因为在以英语为教学语言的美国大学里，学生应该会用英语论述和表达个人的观点，口头和书面上都要如此（这是独立口语第一题和第二题、独立作文题的考査内容）；学生还要会听讲座并对讲座内容进行总结（讲座属于阐述事实型的论证材料），还要会阅读和总结阐述事实型的论证文章（这是综合作文题、综合口语第四题和第六题的考査内容)。从以上内容可以看出，ETS是通过让考生进行论证的方式来测试其在学术英语方面的口头和书面表达能力。因此，在新托福考试中，如果想在口语和写作方面得高分，考生就必须能够快速熟练地阐述和总结表达个人观点的和阐述事实型的论证。学习和运用本书的“论证图谱” 就可以做到这一点。学习论证图谱的第一步就是学习一下基本的论证方法。
二、基本的论证方法论证可以指为了说服对方而阐释个人观点的过程。在新托福考试中，这种论证被称为“个人观点型论证”。:但是，论证不一定总是要说服对方，还可以通过阐述事实来达到告知对方的目的。在新托福考试中，这种论证被称为“阐述事实型论证”。如果论证能成功起到说服或告知的目的，就说明该论证具有很强的连贯性，也就是说整个论证过程表达清晰、逻辑分明。在新托福考试中，连贯性强的论证往往能得高分，因为它展现了考生对于英语的熟练应用能力，而这种能力包括技巧和知识两方面。那么，如何才能快速熟练地展现出连贯的论证呢？首先应该有一个组织论证的清晰思路。组织论证有两种思路：演绎{ deduction )和归纳（induction )。下面我们先从个人观点型论证的演绎方法开始讲起。
三、个人观点型论证：锿洞斜嗤演绎首先请阅读下列对话。Jane: Hi, Mary. How was California?Mary: California was the best trip ever. I learnedhow to surf at Malibu. At first, I kept falling off, but I kept trying andsoon I could do it. It was great. And the sights...Jane: Tell me. Mary: Ivisited Hollywood first, Disneyland next, and Catalina Island last There is somuch to see and do. I was exhausted. Did I tell you about Jack?Jane: Jack?Mary: I met him at Venice Beach. He's a movieproducer. He's so handsome. As a matter of fact, we're having dinner tonight.Tomorrow, we're flying back to L.A. to get married!Jane: Sounds like you had a good time.Mary: I had a fabulous time.这只是一个日常对话，对吗？没错。但同时也是一个个人观点型论证。我们如何判断呢？Mary刚开始就陈述了自己对于加利福尼亚州的看法，这就是她表达个人观点的论证。注意！观点也被称为“概括性陈述”(general statement )。Mary 提到California wae the best trip ever。这就是一个观点，也是一个概括性的陈述。其次，Mary举了三个例子来证明自己的观点。这种例子也被称为“支持性例证”(supporting illustrations)。请注意每个支持性例证是如何证实“加利福尼亚之行是最好的一次旅行”这一观点的。例 1: I learned how to surf at Malibu. At first, Ikept falling off, but I kept trying and soon I could do it. It was great.例 2: And the sights. I visited Hollywood first,Disneyland next, and Catalina Island last. There is so much to see and do. Iwas exhausted.例 3: Did I tell you about Jack? I met him at VeniceBeach. He's a movie producer. He's so handsome. As a matter of fact, we'rehaving dinner tonight, Tomorrow, weYe flying back to L.A. to get married!最后，Mary基于自己的观点和例子得出了一个结论：I had a fabulous time (我过得很愉快)。那么，Mary是在哪里度过了愉快的时光？当然是在加利福尼亚。注意！当在观点和例证的基础上得出了一个结论时，这种组织论证的方法叫作“演绎”。通过分析以上对话的结构，我们就可以看出Mary是如何通过演绛组织了个人观点的论证。注意观察什么样的观点是“总述”，什么样的例子是“分述”。Californiawas the best trip ever.I learned how to surf at Malibu. At first, I keptfalling off, but I kept trying and soon I could do it. It was great.And the sights. I visited Hollywood first,Disneyland next, and Catalina Island last. There is so much to see and do. Iwas exhausted.Did I tell you about Jack? I met him at VeniceBeach. He's a movie producer. He's so handsome. As a matter of fact, we'rehaving dinner tonight. Tomorrow, we're flying back to L.A. to get married!I had a fabulous time.注意观察Mary的结论如何证实了她的观点并与开头相呼应。口语和写作部分的评分人在评分时会注意到这种完整的结构。为什么？因为这样才能表现出考生运用了演绎的方法来论证自己的观点。无论是口语表达还是书面作文，都是如此。只需通过添加一些过渡性词语（连接词），我们就能把Mary 口头的个人观点型论证转变成书面的论证：Californiawas the best trip ever.For example, I learned how to surf at Malibu. Atfirst, I kept falling off, but I kept trying and soon I could do it. It wasgreat.And the sights. I visited Hollywood first,Disneyland next, and Catalina Island last. There is so much to see and do. Iwas exhausted.Also, did I tell you about Jack? I met him atVenice Beach. He's a movie producer. He's so handsome. As a matter of fact,we're having dinner tonight. Tomorrow, we're flying back to L.A. to getmarried!In conclusion, I had a fabulous time.在托福考试中，这种书面的个人观点型论证就是独立作文。这种作文篇幅简短、结构简单，但却表现出了很强的连贯性。为什么？因为Mary—开始就用了很清晰的组织论证方法，陈述了自己对于加州的看法，然后用几个例子和原因来支持自己的观点，最后基于观点和例证得出了结论。除此以外，Mary的论证也展示出了多种写作文体。
四、修辞策略木匠用锤子修建房屋；画家用画笔描绘风景；演讲家和作家则用多种修辞策略来进行论证。备考托福，你需要学习以下八种修辞策略:记叙、顺序、描述、举例、类比和对比、分析因果、定义和分类。1.记叙（Narration）记叙是指按照时间顺序来叙述事物。先发生的事情先讲，后发生的事情后讲，例如：a. Yesterday, Fatima got upat seven o'clock and took a shower. After that she had breakfast, then rode thebus to work. When she got to work, she checked her email, then discussed thenew business plan with her colleagues.b.Every Monday after class,Miguel goes to the gym and practices karate for three hours. When he isfinished, he goes shopping, then takes the bus home.2.顺序（Process)顺序是指按照步骤的先后顺序逐项说明，例如：a. When making tea, first boil water. Next, put atea bag into a cup. When the water is boiling, pour the water into the cup.Finally, add milk and sugar as you prefer.b. Titanic hit an iceberg, broke in two, then sank.3. 描述（Description）描述就是用形容词和副词勾勒出人物、地点或物品的样子。描述时需要用到的感官有视、听、嗅、味、触觉等。a. Alexander, the keyboardplayer in the band, is wearing a black leather jacket, faded jeans and redcowboy boots.b.The old man lived alonein an old house high on a rugged cliff overlooking a stormy sea.4.举例（Illustration)举例是指通过给出例子使句子所表达的意思具体化，例如：a.There are many places togo for a honeymoon. For example, many newlyweds go to Hawaii.b.When you visit Manhattan,I suggest you visit Times Square and Central Park.5.类比和对比（Compare- and- Contrast)类比和对比是写作中常用的方法，可以使读者对事物有一个更清楚的认识。类比用于出同一范畴的两个或多个人或事物之间的相似之处，而对比则用于指出他/它们之间的不同之处。例如：a. Raquel tried the applepie and decided the cherry pie was sweeter.b.Ivan believes that allhigh school students should wear school uniforms; however, Paula believes thatstudents should have the right to choose what they want to wear.6.分析因果（Cause-and-Effect)我们通过分析事件的原因和结果来描述一个动作及其结果或者后果，例如： a. Mohammed studied hard and got a high TOEFL score. b_ Global warming ismelting the ice at the North Pole.7.定义（Definition）定义是指对一个人、一个地方、一个物体或者一个想法进行具体准确的描述，例如：a. The dodo was a flightlessbird native to New Zealand.b.TOEFL is an Englishlanguage proficiency test developed and implemented by Educational TestingServices (ETS) located in Princeton, New Jersey.8.分类（Classification）分类是根据事物的特点分别归类，例如：a. There are three kinds of wine: red, white androse.b. TOEFL, TOEIC and IELTS are English languageproficiency tests.
练习：请判断下列句子使用了哪些修辞策略。1. People can be dividedaccording to personality. Those with Type A personalities are driven to succeedand are born leaders while those with Type B personalities are seen followersand less likely to take control. Bill Gates is an example of a Type Apersonality.2. The autumn moon glowedblood red in the early evening sky.3. Eduardo is the perfecthusband. He gives his new wife everything.4. The smoky restaurant madeLucille sick, so she left early and went home to find twenty messages on heranswering machine. Two were from her parents and eight were from her boyfriend.The rest were from telemarketers, people trying to sell products and servicesby phone, products Mary didn't want or need.5. A TOEFL prep student is astudent who is preparing for the TOEFL test.6. America and Canada arebig countries; however, Canada has fewer people.7. Carol didn't know what tobuy, a notebook or a desktop computer.8. To pass the medical exam, Samira made a studyplan. For the next month, she would get up early and study all morning, take anhour for lunch, then nap for an hour. After that, she would study allafternoon. At five, she'd goout for dinner at her favorite Thai restaurant,then return home and study until midnight.9. Iwona is ecstatic. Her grades are so good shegot into Harvard and Yale. Now she must choose which one she will attend.10. Brooklyn and The Bronx. Where did these twofamous American names come from? Many think early English settlers coined thesenames. Actually, they are Dutch. Many don't know it but Manhattan settlement.In 1644, the British took Manhattan from renamed it New York after the Duke ofYork.答案：1. 分类， 举例， 分析因果，描述2. 描述, 举例， 分析因果3. 举例， 定义， 描述4. 举例， 描述， 定义，分析因果5. 描述， 举例， 定义6. 举例， 描述， 类比和对比7. 举例, 描述’ 类比和对比8. 举例， 描述, 顺序9. 举例， 描述, 分析因果，类比和对比10 举例， 描述, 记叙现在我们再回到Mary的论证当中。请看她在阐述例子时使用到的修辞策略。这些都反过来支撑了她的观点和结论。举例：places tovisit: Malibu 巳each, Hollywood, Disneyland, CatalinaIsland, Venice Beach.things to do:surfing, sightseeing, meeting guys (Jack).描述：surfing atMalibu: “It was great.”after sightseeing: “Iwas exhausted.Jack: “He,s so handsome.Jack: “He's a movie producer,顺库：surfing: “At first, I kept falling off, but Icould do it.”sightseeing: Ivisited Hollywood first,Catalina Island last.分析因果：surfing: “Atfirst, I kept falling off (结果),but I kept trying (原因) andsoon I could do it (结果）”